Resulting from an Anglo-French specification of 1965 for a STOL advanced/operational trainer and tactical support aircraft, the SEPECAT Jaguar first flew in prototype form on 8 September 1968. The RAF bought 165 GR.Mk 1 single-seat and 35 T.Mk 2 two-seat aircraft. Some 14 of the latter were upgraded to Jaguar T.Mk 2A standard with the Fin1064 nav/attack unit and Adour Mk 104 engines, while the GR.Mk 1 also received the Mk 104 engines and was subsequently modified to Jaguar GR.Mk 1A standard with FIN1064 and provision for AIM-9 air-to-air missiles on underwing (later overwing) pylons.
The Jaguar fleet has since undergone a series of major upgrades which now make the aircraft one of the most useful in RAF service. These updates, prompted by the type's stunning performance during Desert Storm, have resulted in the GR.Mk 3A single-seater with TERPROM terrain-reference navigation system, a helmet-mounted sight, a glass cockpit, and full thermal imaging airborne laser designator and ASRAAM capability. Some 40 single-seaters and seven two-seaters will be brought to full GR.Mk 3A/T.Mk 4A standard, and all feature Adour Mk 106 engines offering 10 per cent more thrust but reduced operating cost.
The RAF's Jaguar force remains centered on Nos 6, 41 and 54 Sqns at RAF Coltishall, Norfolk. France bought 160 single-seat Jaguar As and 40 two-seat Jaguar Bs. A far more austere warplane in French service, the Jaguar is in the twilight of its career with the country, but did fight in the 1991 Gulf War.
Jaguar exports have been of the Jaguar International which is similar to the Jaguar GR.Mk 1/T.Mk2. Ecuador, Oman and Nigeria all fly Jaguars as front-line equipment, while India remains by far the largest Jaguar operator and continues to build the type under licence. Indeed, HAL has built the Jaguar IM with Agave radar and Sea Eagle missiles specifically for Indian use. Oman upgraded six of its Jaguars to a standard similar to GR.Mk 3A.
In 2005 French Jaguars were replaced by Dassault Rafale multi-role fighters.
The multi-national Tornado interdictor strike (IDS) aircraft remains one of Europe's most important warplane. The various different attack, reconnaissance and defense suppression versions have played major roles during recent operations over former Bosnia and Yugoslavia, and Iraq. Development of the Tornado by the UK, West Germany and Italy begun in 1968, with the first flight by a prototype in 1974 and service deliveries beginning in 1979.
The RAF's current force comprises eight frontline units that are primarily assigned the conventional long-range interdiction/overland attack role. The also have specialized missions that comprise maritime attack (GR.1B), defense suppression and reconnaissance (GR.1A).
Since 1999 the RAF has received GR.1s upgraded to GR.4 standard with new cockpit displays, compatibility with thermal imaging airborne laser designator pods for autonomous precision guided munitions delivery, integration of night vision goggles with an upgraded forward-looking infra-red and an enhanced self-defense suite. The reconnaissance-configured GR.1As are similarly being upgraded as GR.4As.
The Luftwaffe has 276 IDS aircraft currently assigned to five wings. The aircraft went through a comprehensive mid-life update similar to the RAF's GR.4 programme that also added Litening targeting pods and towed radar decoys. New weapons include BLU-109 and GBU-22 Paveway III laser guided bombs, KEPD 350 Taurus tactical cruise missiles and IRIS-T self-defense air-to-air missiles.
The Marineflieger currently has a wing with around 50 IDS aircraft assigned conventional attack, anti-shipping (with Kormoran anti-ship missiles), defense suppression (with HARMs) and reconnaissance missions.
The Italian air force has three fighter-bomber IDS groups, one of which is assigned the anti-ship role with Kormoran missiles. Italy is converting 15 aircraft to IT ECR standard with dedicated electronic equipment and HARMs for the defense suppression role.
Saudi Arabia was the only export customer with surviving of 96 aircraft assigned to three units, one of which operates 12 recce-configured Tornados. Recently Saudi Arabia signed a contract to upgrade around 80 aircraft.
The Su-24 remains a powerful long-range, low-level strike attack aircraft with real all-weather precision attack capability. With its variable geometry swing wing and side-by-side cockpit, the Su-24 is inevitably compared with the US General Dynamics F-111. The aircraft was never intended or used as a strategic bomber, however, a fact obscured by such comparisons. The Su-24 is more broadly equivalent to the Anglo-German-Italian Tornado.
The Fencer was designed to replace the Yak-28 in the all-weather low-lever tactical strike and attack roles. It was intended to carry free-fall TN-1000 and TN-1200 nuclear bombs, and a variety of conventional free-fall bombs, rockets and guided air-to-surface missiles to attack fixed and mobile targets with pinpoint accuracy. While optimized as a supersonic bomber the aircraft was also intended to have a secondary photographic reconnaissance role, and to replace the Brewer in the electronic warfare role.
The design of what became the Sukhoi Su-24 began in the early 1960s. Sukhoi, however, abandoned its initial design (an enlarged, twin-engined aircraft based loosely on the Su-7 configuration, but with a tandem cockpit) in favour of the compound Delta T6. This featured fuselage-mounted lift jets for enhanced STOL performance. The lift jets were heavy and bulky, however, and the T6 was redesigned six months later.
The resulting T-6-21G prototype had no lift jets (leaving increased space for fuel and weapons) but did feature a VG swing wing. This was added to improve take-off and landing performance. The aircraft made its maiden flight during May 1970 and was ordered into production as the Su-24 in late 1970.
The production Su-24 entered frontline service in 1973. The Su-24 was deployed with the Group of Soviet Forces in Germany in 1979, and in Poland. From 1984 the Su-24 saw active service in Afghanistan.
The original Su-24 underwent slight changes in configuration during production, and this led NATO's ASCC to assign three reporting names (Fencer-A through to -C). The aircraft was fast and stable at low level, and could carry an impressive warload (though only at the expense of range) but its avionics were backward and unreliable. The aircraft was thus never as capable as Western attack aircraft.
The improved Su-24M (Fencer-D) was a much better aircraft, and entered service in 1986. The Su-24M introduced upgraded avionics, with separate Orion-A forward-looking attack and Relief Terrain Following Radars. It also had a Kaira 24 laser and TV sighting system which gave PGM compatibility. The Fencer-D had a retractable refuelling probe above the nose, and could carry a buddy refuelling store on the center-line.
The Su-24MR (Fencer-E) is a dedicated tactical reconnaissance variant. It entered service in 1983. It lacks attack radar, cannon and attack avionics, in favor of panoramic cameras, side-looking airborne radar and infrared reconnaissance system. It also carries other podded sensors. Data from the sensors cold be relayed in real-time to ground stations. This reconnaissance aircraft can carry two R-60 (AA-8 Aphid) air-to-air missiles for self-defense. Production of the Su-24MR ceased in 1993. At least a hundred of these tactical reconnaissance aircraft were built.
The Su-25MP (Fencer-F) is a dedicated ELINT variant. It was developed alongside the Su-24MR. The Fencer-F entered service in 1983. This aircraft has additional intelligence-gathering sensors. Various SIGINT and ECM pods can be carried. It is armed with a cannon and has provision for up to four R-60 air-to-air missiles. Only 10 - 20 of these aircraft were built.
At least 670 Su-24s have definitely been built. The overall total is probably between 900 - 1 200. Fencer-Bs, -Cs, -Ds and -Es remain in wide-spread front line use in Russia, and various former Soviet states. Downgraded, non-nuclear capable export Su-24MKs have been delivered to Algeria, Iran, Iraq, Libya and Syria.
A proposed replacement for the ageing Su-24s is a new Su-34 long-range interdictor, which is a derivative of the Su-27 air superiority fighter. It has been accepted to service with the Russian air force, however due to funding restrictions only few of these new aircraft are operational.
The Sukhoi Su-25 Frogfoot remains the mainstay of Russian shturmovoy (ground-attack) regiments. The type is broadly analogous to the US A-10 but has been matured into a more sophisticated warplane.
The T-8 prototype made its first flight on 22 February 1975, but type was comprehensively redesigned before series production was authorised. Su-25s flew some 60 000 combat sorties in Afghanistan and this experience led to a range of modifications applied to production aircraft from 1987. Su-25s were also heavily committed to support Russian interventions in Chechnya.
The need for an all-weather and night capable Su-25 with increased range/endurance and survivability led to the Su-25T. This is based on the airframe of the Su-25UB two-seat trainer version with the humped rear cockpit faired over. An early batch of 20 Su-25Ts was built during 1990-1991 in Tbilisi (Georgia). Production was subsequently transferred to Ulan-Ude (Russia). The first Russian-built Su-25T flew in 1995; the variant has since been redesignated Su-25TM or Su-39.
Unusually, the TM carries its Kopyo-25 radar externally in a pod under the fuselage. The 20 Georgian-built Su-25Ts have been upgraded at Ulan-Ude to Su-25TMs. Su-25UBs are similarly being upgraded as Su-25UBMs.
The Russian air force currently operates about 250 Su-25s and is upgrading around 80 to Su-25SM standard using some of the systems developed for the Su-25TM. These will have nose-mounted Kopyo radars.
The Su-25 will reportedly play a major role in the rapid-deployments groups that are being formed in each of the Russian Federation's six military districts. The units will have four Su-25TMs and 12 Su-25SMs. The Su-25TM is offered for export as the Su-25TK.
Many former Soviet republics gained the Su-25 regiments stationed on their territory on break up of the Soviet Union. Such operators comprise Armenia, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Georgia, Georgia (Abkhazia), Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan (in storage) and Uzbekistan. Export Su-25K operators are Angola, Bulgaria, Czech Republic, North Korea, Peru and Slovakia.
The Sukhoi Su-34 (NATO designation Fullback) was developed primarily for the strike/attack role to replace the Su-24 Fencer. It is a derivative of the Su-27 Flanker, easily distinguished by it's side-by-side cockpit and 'platypus' nose. It is also being proposed for the Russian air force to serve in the heavy interceptor, reconnaissance, electronic warfare and defense suppression roles.
First flown in 1990, this aircraft was originally designated the Su-27IB. In 1995 a pre-production aircraft, designated as the Su-32, was revealed. Development was slow due to limited funding. Until 2004 a total of 8 pre-production aircraft were built for trials and evaluation. Recently Russian Air Force has adopted the Su-34 designation. To date only two Fullbacks were delivered to Russian Air Force and 22 more are planned to enter service with bomber squadrons until 2010. It was stated that total Russia's requirement is for 200 interdictors of new type. Upgrade programmes continue for surviving Russian Su-24s to extend their service lives. The Su-34 is also proposed for export customers, however it received no orders to date.
The Su-34 Fullback design retains the Su-27s basic layout, construction of the airframe, engines, most of it's wing structure, tail and substantial part of onboard equipment. It also uses canards of the Su-30 for improved maneuverability. Aircraft has entirely new nose and forward fuselage with cockpit. The advantage of a side-by-side cockpit is that duplicate instruments are not required for each pilot. It is also more comfortable on longer missions. The Su-34 has a modern glass cockpit, with color multi-function displays. Nose section of the Fullback accommodates advanced multi-mode phased array radar, capable of terrain following. Cockpit and some other crucial components and systems are armored. Aircraft is fitted with comprehensive electronic counter measures equipment.
This interdictor is armed with a 30-mm GSh-301 cannon with 180 rounds. Aircraft has 10 underwing and underfusealage hardpoints for a wide range of weapons, including air-to-air, air-to-surface, anti-ship and anti-radiation missiles, guided or free fall bombs. The Su-34 normally carries 4 000 kg of weapons, however maximum capacity is 8 000 kg. Primary air-to-air weapon is the R-77 (AA-12) missile. Two R-73 (AA-11 Archer) short-range air-to-air missiles are typically carried on wingtip rails. The Su-34 has a rearward facing radar and can launch air-to-air missiles at pursuing enemy aircraft.
For strike roles emphasis is placed on long-range standoff weapons, such as Kh-55 (AS-15 Kent), Kh-59 (AS-13 Kingbolt) cruise missiles, Kh-25 (AS-10 Kerry), Kh-29 (AS-14 Kedge) air-to-surface missiles, Kh-31 (AS-17 Krypton), Kh-35 (AS-20 Kayak) and Kh-41 Moskit, Yakhont anti-ship missiles, and Kh-58 (AS-11 Kilter) anti-radiation missiles.
Guided bombs include the KAB-500 and KAB-1500. Aircraft can also carry electronic warfare or reconnaissance pods. Capacity of internal fuel has been increased and three external fuel tanks can be carried. Aircraft also has in-flight refueling capability, that allows missions of up to 10 hours duration.
The MiG-23B was developed from the MiG-23 interceptor in the late 1960s to meet a Frontal Aviation requirement for a tactical attack aircraft. The series production MiG-23BN variant proved disappointing in service and was replaced by more capable MiG-27 Flogger.
The upgraded MiG-23BM/BK variants incorporated the improved avionics of later MiG-27s. Many BM/BKs built for export were described as MiG-23BNs.
In 2001 significant operators were Afghanistan, Bulgaria, Cuba, India and Libya. Algeria's aircraft received an avionics upgrade by a Bulgarian firm. Lesser operators are Angola, Ethiopia and Sudan. During border clashes with Eritrea in 1998 two Ethiopian MiG-23s was lost to ground fire.
The MiG-27 was developed as a fully optimized fighter-bomber based on the MiG-23BM. Along with the Su-17, the MiG-27 formed one half of the mainstay of the attack force of Tactical Frontal Aviation armies. Between 1991 to 1994 both types were withdrawn from Russian service. The only current MiG-27 operators are Kazakhstan (with three attack regiments) and India. Both operate the MiG-27M Flogger-J variant fitted with PrNK-23M nav/attack system, Pelenga weapons system giving compatibility with precision guided munitions and guided air-to-surface missiles and a Klen (maple) laser range-finder/target tracker.
The MiG-27s are capable of automatic night or bad weather blind bombing with a very high degree of accuracy. In India HAL has manufactured 165 MiG-27Ms under license (known by MiG as MiG-27Ls). Although it is giving priority to the MiG-21 upgrade, the Indian air force intends to keep its MiG-27 force viable until 2020, and HAL's Nasik plant is currently investigating a substantial MiG-27 upgrade. This will give the ability to launch stand-off weapons and a night attack capability. New equipment includes two multi-function displays, updated head-up display, hands on stick and throttle controls and a ring laser gyro internal navigation system and GPS-based navigation system similar to that fitted to Indian Jaguars. The MiG-27s may also gain an improved electronic warfare suite, in-flight refuelling capability, forward-looking infra-red and a Vicon reconnaissance pod. MiG-27Ms currently equip nine IAF attack squadrons.
In October 1987, Japan selected the F-16C Fighting Falcon as the basis for a much developed version to replace the Mitsubishi F-1, primarily in the fighter support role. Although a costly ad controversial programme - one F-2 costs at least the same as four Block 52/52 F-16Cs - the F-2 illustrates Japan's commitment to maintaining its high-technology aerospace industry.
The F-2 features a new wing of 25 per cent greater-area and co-cured, all-composite construction, with radar absorbent material on the leading edges. In order to house additional mission avionics that include an integrated electronic warfare system, the F-2's fuselage has a lengthened forward section when compared to the F-16C. Other features include a longer nose to accommodate an active phased-array radar, a larger tailplane, a brake chute and a strengthened canopy.
Mitsubishi is the prime contractor responsible for airframe assembly as well as manufacture of the forward fuselage section, while the other major assemblies are produced by Lockheed Martin, Kawasaki and Fuji. With either wing tip-mounted AIM-9 or Mitsubishi AAM-3 air-to-air missiles, the F-2 still has 11 hardpoints available for other stores, including the ASM-2 anti-ship missile as one of the principal weapons. The F-2 programme has suffered long delays, cost escalation and a number of structural problems including wing cracking and severe flutter. Four prototypes have been built comprising two single-seat XF-2As and a pair of two-seat XF-2B.
The first XF-2A recorded the type's maiden flight on 7 October 1995. In late 1995 the Japanese government approved a programme for the manufacture of 130 aircraft with an entry into service scheduler for 1999. Delays resulting from modifications to cure structural problems delayed the F-2's entry into operational service until 2001. The current production programme calls for production of 83 F-2A single-seaters and 47 F-2B two-seaters. Retaining full combat capability, these have a fuel capacity reduced by 685 liters. The F-2Bs will be used for conversion and proficiency training, replacing Mitsubishi T-2s.
In April 1978, Aeritalia and Aermacchi combined their resources to meet requirements from the Italian air force (AMI) for an advanced multi-purpose strike/reconnaissance aircraft. The programme received extra impetus in 1980 when it was joined by Brazil, with EMBRAER chosen as the industrial partner. Procurement was signed initially for 79 AMXs for Brazil and 187 for Italy, plus six prototypes. The type's Rolls-Royce Spey Mk 807 turbofan powerplant was built under license. The initial AMX flew in May 1984.
Design features include hands on stick and throttle controls, internal navigation system, head-up and head-down displays, digital databus, active and passive electronic counter measures, and provision for air-to-air refueling.
By mid-1998, programme totals had increased to 332 aircraft, including 66 two-seat AMX-Ts (known in Brazil as A-1Bs). In these variants, a fuel bay behind the original cockpit is replaced by a second Martin-Baker Mk 10L ejection seat, causing some reduction in range. The first of three AMX-T prototypes initially flew in Italy on 14 March 1990, although funding problems delayed first flight of the Brazilian two-seat prototype until 14 August 1991. Radar-equipped versions of the AMX-T have also been considered in Brazil and Italy for enhanced all-weather, electronic combat reconnaissance, maritime strike roles, and Italian trials with the Exocet anti-ship missile proved successful.
In the reconnaissance role, the AMX can either carry external photo or infra-red pods, or can be equipped with any one of three sensor pallets for internal carriage in the forward fuselage. The first operational Aeronautica Militare Italiana squadron received its first AMX on 7 November 1989.
The first Brazilian A-1 unit began to receive its aircraft on 17 October 1989. In 1998 Venezuela announced its intention to purchase on advanced AMX-ATA variant and further prospects include a variant that is powered by a 60 kN non-afterburning version of the Eurofighter's EJ200 turbofan.
In 1979 Dassault was contracted to produce two prototypes of the Mirage 2000P (Penetration) that were intended to replace the ageing Mirage IVP in the nuclear strike role. Later designated 2000N (Nucleaire), this version of the 2000B trainer features a strengthened airframe to cope with high-subsonic, low-level flight and an Antilope 5 terrain-following radar that provides automatic terrain following down to 91 m at speeds up to 1 112 km/h.
The primary armament is the 850-kg Aerospatiale ASMP stand-off tactical strike missile. This has a dual yield of 150- or 300-KT and a range of over 80 km from low-altitude launch.
The 2000N achieved initial operating capability in July 1988 and was built in two versions: N-K1 dedicated nuclear strike (31 built) and N-K2 with additional conventional attack capability (46 built).
Delays with the Rafale programme generated a requirement for more aircraft solely for conventional attack. The resulting 2000N (N Prime) flew in prototype form in 1990. The designation was later changed to 2000D (Diversified) and 75 examples were built for delivery from 1993. These differ from the 2000N by having an upgraded countermeasures suite and cockpit systems with more integrated hands on stick and throttle controls. The key to much of the 2000D's precision attack capability is the PDCLT laser designator/TV/thermal imaging pod carried beneath the starboard air intake, it allows the 2000D to direct weapons such as the AS 30L laser-guided missile or BGL 1000 laser guided bombs. In 2001 the Armee de l'Air fielded three squadrons each of 2000Ds (all based at Nancy and 2000Ns (two units at Luxeuil and one at Istres).
In 1997 Abu Dhabi ordered 30 new-build Mirage 2000-9 long-range attack aircraft. Later designated 2000-5 Mk II, these will be joined by all 33 remaining examples of Abu Dhabi's earlier batch (including 2000D-DA trainers) upgraded to 2000-9 standard.
The JH-7 has been in development since the mid-1970s to meet a requirement from the Chinese air force and naval aviation for an all-weather interdictor. In design, the JH-7 resembles a scaled-up SEPECAT Jaguar. Its projected performance approaches that of the Tornado IDS, albeit with a reduced payload, but with a longer unrefueled range.
The JH-7 features a wide range of indigenously-developed systems and equipment; these include the JL-10A multi-mode radar, Blue Sky low-altitude radar/forward-looking infra-red navigation pods and inertial/GPS navigation systems. The Xian WS-9 engines are license-manufactured Rolls-Royce Spey turbofans. Although the prototype reportedly first flew in 1988, the programme was troubled by technical problems through-out the 1990s, leading China to consider alternative combat aircraft from Russia in the form of Sukhoi Su-27s and two-seat Su-30s. Surprisingly, the acquisition of the Sukhois has not ended the JH-7 programme. It is likely that the JH-7's revival has stemmed from the PLA's desire to modernize its air forces, and for the need of the Chinese aerospace industry to be able to offer more modern fighters for export.
The decision to feature the JH-7 prominently at the Zhuhai airshow in 1998 was accompanied by a modest order for the type. With the PLAAF's acquisition of Su-30 for the long-range strike role, the JH-7 is being acquired for the Chinese naval aviation, with a reported figure of between 25 to 32 aircraft for a single regiment. The service is gaining a potent long-range maritime attack capability. Armed with the indigenous C-802 or supersonic KR-1 missiles (the latter a version of the Russian Kh-31P/AS-17 Krypton), the JH-7 will markedly effect the balance of power in the Taiwan Straits, and beyond into the South China Sea.
During China's 1995-1996 exercises near Taiwan, Chinese television briefly showed a JH-7 dropping a clutch of free-fall general purpose bombs. The JH-7 is being promoted actively for export as the FBC-1 Flying Leopard. It was recently offered - unsuccessfully - to Iran.
The F-111 originated in studies for a replacement for Tactical Air Command's F-100 Super Sabres and F-105 Thunderchiefs in the tactical strike role. Tactical Air Command wanted an aircraft which could operate from shorter runways. They also required a longer ferry range as overseas deployments by F-100s were often limited by refuelling problems. The aircraft would also be optimized for very low-level penetration, including a final 370 km dash at Mach 1.2. It would be a multi-role aircraft, capable of Mach 2.5 at high level in the interceptor role. This made it inevitable that the successful design would have a variable geometry, swing wing.
Glueing on the fighter role and the demand for Mach 2.5 capability immediately made the F-111 designers jobs more difficult. Their task, however, would soon be immeasurably complicated by the incoming Secretary of Defense, Robert McNamara. He directed that the USAF (whose primary requirement was still for a low-level strike aircraft) and the US Navy (who need a long-range carrierborne interceptor) should acquire a common aircraft. This became known by the acronym TFX.
Both services initially welcomed the joint common fighter, until it became clear that no single airframe could meet all the different requirements. By then, however, the bit was between McNamara's teeth, and he drove the program forward. Boeing and General Dynamics competed for the lucrative TFX contract, which was awarded to the latter company (the military favored the Boeing submission) in November 1962. The General Dynamics design was more of a compromise, and the US Navy and USAF versions were variants of a common airframe. The Boeing aircraft, however, was tailored more closely to the USAF requirement, while the Boeing Navy version had relatively little commonality with the USAF variant. McNamara was later accused of having bought the second best airplane at the higher price.
Technical difficulties, barely controlled weight growth and massive cost escalation characterized the remainder of the TFX's development. During wind-tunnel testing severe drag problems were encountered. Weight reduction programs on the naval version reduced commonality to a mere 28 per cent or so, before the F-111B altogether, and replaced by the F-14 Tomcat.
The first F-111A made its maiden flight on December 21, 1964, and soon ran into further problems, not least of which was the TF30 engine. This would later severely compromise the F-14 programme as well!
Once the aircraft entered service with the USAF's evaluation unit, the General Dynamics F-111 began to win friends. The aircrews were blown away by the aircraft's performance and its automatic terrain following capability. Engineers were impressed by its reliability and maintainability.
Even before CAT 1 testing was complete, in March 1968, six aircraft were deployed to Vietnam for the Combat Lancer evaluation. These soon demonstrated their combat effectiveness. But things soon went wrong after three aircraft failed to return from routine missions. They had all crashed due to structural fatigue failures. This eventually led to a fleet-wide grounding and a cripplingly expensive series of modifications and fixes.
The engine intakes were redesigned, and avionics were improved, resulting in a succession of sub-variants. The definitive F-111D finally entered service in October 1971. The further improved F-111F (with more powerful engines, improved avionics and Pave Tack pods for laser designating) followed in early 1972. Strategic Air command even acquired two Wings of FB-111s. These were dedicated strategic nuclear strike aircraft, each carrying a pair of SRAMs. These aircraft were eventually converted to F-111G standards and were returned to the tactical role.
The Australians must have rued their selection of the General Dynamics F-111 over the BAC TSR2 during the long years of delay and disappointment. The 24 aircraft, which should have a cost A$112 million, were supposed to have been delivered from 1973, and cost almost twice as much! The RAF did not have the opportunity to regret its involvement in the F-111 program, since none were ever delivered. Britain had cancelled its 50-aircraft order mainly because the United States could not give a fixed price!
During the final years of its USAF career, the Aardvark finally lived down its unfortunate early history. It was, however, never capable of the kind of austere-strip STOL operations once envisaged for it. The F-111 was tied to long concrete runways as its predecessors had been. Time and again, the F-111 proved invaluable in precision attacks against vital targets. After attacking targets in Libya in 1986, the F-111F played a vital role in the Gulf War. Some claimed that the elderly Aardvark was actually the USAF's most effective and accurate precision guided munitions and laser guided bombs delivery platform. Unfortunately, though, Operation Desert Storm proved to be something of a final swansong for the General Dynamics F-111.
With pressure for post-Cold War defense economies becoming increasingly difficult to resist, the USAF finally withdrew its last F-111 bombers in July 1996. The EF-111A electronic warfare and defense suppression aircraft followed during 1998. This allowed the USAF to stop supporting an entire aircraft type, with corresponding savings in logistics support costs.
The F-111 remains in service with the RAAF, who use the aircraft in the attack and reconnaissance roles. The RAAF's aircraft have been comprehensively upgraded and modernized with digital avionics, and are able to use the latest precision-guided munitions. Australia's original batch of 24 F-111Cs (four of them locally converted to RF-111C standards). These aircraft were then augmented by four F-111A attrition replacements delivered in 1982, and by 15 ex-USAF F-111Gs delivered in 1993. These will allow the Australian F-111 fleet to the maintained in service until 2020.
By normal standards long since rendered obsolete due to its great vulnerability to surface-to-air missiles, the mighty Boeing B-52 Stratofortress has seen two would-be successors fall by the wayside. It remains a major element in one of the three US strategic deterrents and will continue to give valuable service well into the 21st century.
The B-52 began life in 1948 as a turboprop successor to the B-50. In 1949, a change to Pratt & Whitney J57 turbojet powerplant was made and the XB-52 prototype made its maiden flight on 15 April 1952. The B-52 evolved through progressively improved B-52A to B-52G models, the latter remaining in service to late 1994.
The ultimate B-52H is characterized by two major changes: introduction of TF33 turbofans that give greater thrust in concert with a considerably reduced specific fuel consumption, and structural changes which permit the B-52 to fly at low altitudes without excessive fatigue problems.
The final B-52H was rolled out in June 1962 and with the B-1B and B-2A entering service in only limited numbers, the B-52H has been constantly upgraded to enable it to remain a credible front-line type. With the B-1B increasingly assuming the free-fall nuclear role of the B-52H, this latter type has been reallocated to the force projection role, with weapons that now include the AGM-86C conventionally-armed variant of the nuclear cruise missile and Have Nap missiles. The importance of the B-52H to the USAF's continued need for warplanes with global reach while carrying very heavy warloads is demonstrated by the fact that comprehensive upgrades for the remaining aircraft, both in terms of avionics and weapons systems, are still planned. And although a re-engining programme has apparently been dropped, the type is still scheduled to remain in service until 2044.
The Rockwell B-1B Lancer traces its origins to the B-1A prototype strategic bomber of the 1970s. The basic B-1A design was much revised, and resulted in 100 production B-1B Lancers, the first of which flew in production form on 18 October 1984.
The B-1B has variable geometry outer wing panels, some degree of stealthiness and is optimised for the low-level, high-speed penetration role against sophisticated air-defence systems with the aid of comprehensive countermeasures systems. The primary offensive system is the APQ-164 multi-mode radar, which includes a low-observable phased-array antenna for low-altitude terrain following and accurate navigation.
With the end of the Cold War, the B-1B lost its nuclear strike role and was re-roled instead for conventional warfare. The B-1B's ability to carry up to 34020 kg of bombs internally - more than any other bomber - gives an added flexibility to the USAF's combat operations. At the heart of this re-roling is the Conventional Munitions Upgrade Programme (CMUP). Segmented into blocks, this was designed to expand the B-1's lethality, survivability and maintainability as a conventional bomber. Block C provided for the carriage of a range of cluster bombs (CEM, Gator and SFW); Block D added GBU-31 Joint Direct-Attack Munitions compatibility, as well as a new countermeasures system (including ALE-50 towed decoy) and a new comms/navigation system; Block E, became operational in 2003, adds a precision strike ability with the WCMD, JSOW and JASSM weapons; Block F will witness further improvements in defensive capability (including ALE-55 decoy) for service from 2003 and completion in 2009.
Weapons are carried on preloaded gun-clip-type modules or rotary launchers. The B-1B saw its combat debut over Iraq during Desert Fox on 17 December 1998 but really proved its worth during Allied Force in 1999, during which aircraft deployed from the UK dropped around 5 000 Mk 82 bombs. Around 70 Lancers are available for operations at any one time, dispersed between three wings of USAF Air Combat Command and two wings of the Air National Guard.
The black, bat-like B-2A Spirit is the silver bullet of US policy, reserved for use against targets of the highest priority. The B-2 is the costliest warplane ever built (around $900 million per copy), is difficult to maintain and is prone to trouble with the coating that provides much of its stealth.
The B-2 Spirit was developed as a low observable strategic bomber for the Cold War mission of attacking Soviet strategic targets. Composites are extensively used to provide a radar-absorbent honeycomb structure; the bomber has a minimal IR signature, does not contrail and uses its shielded APQ-181 radar only momentarily to identify a target just before attacking. The glass cockpit is usually flown by a crew of two. The aircraft has a quadruplex-redundant digital fly-by-wire system and highly advanced, classified electronic warfare system.
Six prototypes were funded and the first was rolled out on 22 November 1988. The B-2's first flight took place on 17 July 1991 the USAF implemented a set of treatments to rectify a shortfall in the B-2A's stealth capabilities.
The USAF had originally wanted 132 aircraft, but funding restrictions have seen the fleet completed with just 21 aircraft. The last of these was delivered on 14 July 2000 and is the AV-1 prototype upgraded to Block 30 standard. The first operational B-2A was delivered to the 509th Bomb Wing on 17 December 1993 and full initial operating capability came in April 1997.
Having progressed through the Block 10 and 20 standards of stealth, systems and weapons capability, the entire B-2A fleet will be brought to Block 30 standard with full weapons and stealth capabilities. The B-2A made its combat debut over Kosovo in 1999, employing the Joint Direct Attack Munition (JDAM) and other weapons to great effect. Although the USAF's B-2 force is garrisoned at Whiteman air force base, Missouri, the service has ambitious plans to operate the aircraft temporarily from forward bases like Guam and Diego Garcia.
The Tu-22M was developed from the earlier Tu-22 design, incorporating variable-geometry outer wing panels. The first Tu-22M-0 prototype flew in 1969. Powered by a military derivative of the engine originally designed for the Tu-144 supersonic airliner, the Backfire is extremely fast, even at low level. The Tu-22M lacks sufficient range for truly strategic missions and is classified as a medium bomber.
The first series production model was the Tu-22M-2 Backfire-B (211 built) for the Soviet Air Forces and the Naval Aviation Forces. Normally armed with a single Kh-22 stand-off missile, this variant became operational with 185 Guard Heavy Bomber Aviation Regiment at Poltava in 1978, and also served in Afghanistan.
The ultimate bomber/missile carrying variant is the Tu-22M-3 Backfire-C, (268 built). The M-3 features strengthened wings, raked rectangular intakes serving more powerful engines. It also had a greatly increased weapons load (see specification). The Tu-22M3 remains numerically the most important bomber in the Russian air force's Long-Range Air Army inventory, and serves with seven regiments (one of which also operates Tu-22M-2s). The Naval Aviation Forces have about 80 Tu-22Ms, mostly M-3 models, split equally between divisions subordinated to the Northern and Pacific Fleets. The Naval Aviation Forces also have 12 M-3s converted as Tu-22MR reconnaissance aircraft, and reportedly also operates limited numbers of recce-configured Tu-22M2Rs.
Because of delays in the development of the Sukhoi T-60, the intended replacement of the Tu-22M3, it has been decided to embark on a major upgrade of the Backfire. The Tu-22M-2/M-3s of both the Air Force and Naval Aviation will be upgraded to Tu-245 standard, with a new radar, new missile systems and an automatic terrain-following capability. Russia is also trialling small numbers of redundant Tu-22M-3 airframes converted as Tu-22MP prototypes of a planned electronic warfare/escort jammer variant. The sole non-Russian operator of the potent Backfire is Ukraine, which gained former Black Sea Fleet Naval Aviation Regiments of Tu-22M-2/M-3s. About 50 bombers equip three air force heavy bomber regiments.
The turboprop-powered Tu-95 Bear strategic bomber entered service in 1956 and remains an important part of Russia's long range air power.
The current bomber/missile carrier version is the Tu-95MS Bear-H. This entered service in 1984 and was manufactured until 1992. There are two subvariants, both based on the maritime Tu-142. The Tu-95MS16 Bear-H16 carries 16 long-range air-launched cruise missiles (six internally and ten externally). The Tu-95MS6 Bear-H6 is the more numerous version, with provision for external missile carriage deleted in accordance with the SALT/START treaties. About 60 Tu-95s of both variants are based with heavy bomber regiments at Engels and Ukrainka. This total includes three aircraft formerly held in Ukraine.
Russia plans to add the Kh-101 air-launched cruise missiles and Kh-SD air-to-surface missiles to the inventory of the Tu-95MS to improve their conventional long-range precision strike capability. The air force also operates 11 earlier-model Tu-95KUs as trainers.
The Tu-142 Bear-F was designed primarily for anti-submarine warfare and a variety of naval roles. Around 40 examples equip a single Russian naval aviation regiment at Kipelovo, assigned to the Northern Fleet. The major anti-submarine warfare variants are the Tu-142MK Bear-F Mod 3 and improved Tu-142M-Z Bear-F Mod 4, the last of which was completed in 1994. The Tu-142MR Bear-J is a command post/communications relay platform for communicating with submerged nuclear-missile armed submarines. Such is the importance of the Tu-142 in Russian service, that surviving Bear-F Mod 4 airframes are likely to be updated with Leninets Sea Dragon system, which includes a new radar,
low-light-level TV, forward-looking infra-red, new sonobuoys, revised electronic surveillance measures and magnetic anomaly detection (MAD) systems, and an armament of up to eight Kh-35 (AS-20 Kayak) anti-ship missiles for an extended ASV/ASW role. The only Tu-142 export operator is the Indian navy which has seven Tu-142 MK-Es at Arrakonam. These are broadly similar to the Bear-F Mod 3, but have certain downgraded systems.
The Tu-160 (NATO designation Blackjack) is the world's largest operational bomber. It is nicknamed the White Swan by the pilots. Dwarfing the similar-looking B-1B Lancer, it is the heaviest combat aircraft ever built. Unlike the B-1B, the Tu-160 bomber remains committed to both low-level penetration (at transonic speeds) and high-level penetration at speeds of about Mach 1.9.
Although the aircraft has a fly-by-wire control system all cockpit displays are conventional analogue instruments, with no multi-function or head-up displays. The long pointed radome houses a terrain following and attack radar. Below this is a fairing for a forward-looking TV camera used for visual weapon aiming.
The development programme of the Tupolev Tu-160 was extremely protracted; the prototype Tu-160 first flew in 1981 and the second aircraft was lost in 1987. First aircraft became operational in 1987. Series production was at Kazan and continued until January 1992, when President Yeltsin announced that no further strategic bombers would be built. It is believed that production totaled no more than 39 Blackjacks.
In 1989 the Tu-160 reached a speed of 2 200 km/h for the first time. However later maximum speed was limited to 2 000 km/h in order to extend service lives of the engine and fuselage. It is worth noting that the Blackjack set 44 world records.
Even after the aircraft entered service, problems continued to severely restrict operations and production began before a common standard and configuration was agreed. Thus wingspans, equipment fit, and intake configurations differ from aircraft to aircraft.
The Blackjack is armed with Kh-55 (NATO designation AS-15 Kent) cruise missiles and Kh-15 (NATO designation AS-16 Kickback) attack missiles. The aircraft can carry 12 Kh-55 and up to 24 Kh-15. Both of these missiles can carry nuclear warheads. Missiles are carried in two weapon bays. The Tu-160 can also carry free-fall bombs with a maximum weight of up to 40 t. These bombers are intended to attack the most important enemy targets. It is claimed that the Tu-160 has reduced radar cross section for stealth.
Nineteen Tu-160s were delivered to the 184th Guards Heavy Bomber Aviation Regiment at Priluki (Ukraine) beginning in May 1987. These were left at the Ukrainian base after the break up of the USSR in 1991 and, after protracted discussions between Ukraine and the Russian Federation, eight were returned to Russia in 1999. Scrapping of the remaining Tu-160s held in Ukraine began in late 1998 under a contract issued by the US government. In early 2001, six Russian Tupolev Tu-160s were declared operational as air-launched cruise missile carriers under the START treaty. These are assigned to the 121st Guards Heavy Bomber Aviation Regiment at Engels and were joined in 2001 by the first of the eight refurbished aircraft formerly held in Ukraine. Although perhaps up to a dozen further airframes are nominally serviceable it seems unlikely that Russia has sufficient funds to rework these aircraft. Some sources claim that Russian Air Force currently operates 16 of these strategic bombers.
US-based Platforms International Corp. has acquired three demilitarized ex-Ukrainian Tu-160s which it is converting as Tu-160SK launchers for space vehicles.
